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Hardening an electrical grid against electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) involves protecting the infrastructure from the potentially catastrophic effects of EMPs caused by high-altitude nuclear explosions or solar storms. Here’s how EMPs affect electrical grids and some strategies to mitigate their impact:How EMPs Affect Electrical GridsAn EMP can cause significant disruptions by inducing very strong currents and voltages in power lines over a wide area. This can lead to: Damage to Transformers and Ge

Two examples of ring network

What is a Network Analysis ?Network Analysis DefinitionNetwork analysis in electrical engineering is a method used to calculate different electrical parameters of circuit elements in a network.Series and Parallel CircuitsThese are fundamental arrangements in circuit analysis, crucial for determining equivalent resistances, inductances, and capacitances.Source TransformationThis technique simplifies complex networks by converting current sources to voltage sources and vice versa.Nodal and Mesh An

What are H Parameters (Hybrid Parameters?)Hybrid parameters (also known as h parameters) are known as ‘hybrid’ parameters as they use Z parameters, Y parameters, voltage ratio, and current ratios to represent the relationship between voltage and current in a two port network. H parameters are useful in describing the input-output characteristics of circuits where it is hard to measure Z or Y parameters (such as in a transistor).H parameters encapsulate all the important linear characteristics of

What is Two Port Network?Atwo port networkis an electrical network model with one pair of input terminals and one pair of output terminals. It is commonly used to model the voltage and current characteristics of complex electrical networks.The figure below shows a two port network.A single phase transformer is an ideal example of two port network.When an electrical signal is applied across the input ports, there would be an electrical signal across output ports.The relation between input and out

What is a Y Parameter?Y parameters (also known as admittance parameters or short-circuit parameters) are properties used in electrical engineering to describe the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks. These Y-parameters are used in Y-matrixes (admittance matrixes) to calculate the incoming and outgoing voltages and currents of a network.Y-parameters are also known as “short-circuit impedance parameters”, as they are calculated under open-circuit conditions. That is to say that Ix=∞,

What are Z Parameters?Z parameters (also known as impedance parameters or open-circuit parameters) are properties used in electrical engineering to describe the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks. These Z-parameters are used in Z-matrixes (impedance matrixes) to calculate the incoming and outgoing voltages and currents of a network.Z-parameters are also known as “open-circuit impedance parameters”, as they are calculated under open-circuit conditions. That is to say that Ix=0, whe

What are S Parameters?The S-parameters, also known as scattering or S-matrix parameters, represent how RF energy moves through a multi-port network. It represents the linear properties of RF electronic components and describes how energy travels through an electric network.The S-parameter matrix calculates characteristics like gain, loss, impedance, phase group delay, and VSWR. S-parameters are used to represent a complex network as a simple “black box” and clearly indicate what happens to the s

What is a Dual Network?Two electrical networks are said to bedual networksif themesh equationsof one network is equal to thenode equationof the other.The dual network is based on Kirchhoff Current Law and Kirchhoff Voltage Law. Applying Kirchhoff Voltage Law in the network A, above we get, Applying Kirchhoff Current Law in the network B, above we get, Here we have found that equations (i) and (ii) are similar in their mathematical form. Equation (i) is in mesh form and equation (ii) is in nodal

Target detection and field surveillance are among the most prominent applications of wireless sensor networks. However, the sensing capabilities of sensors are affected by environmental factors in real deployment. This paper investigates the problem of detecting probability in a log-normal shadow fading environment. It presents an analytic method to evaluate the detection probability by at least k sensors under practical considerations. Furthermore, we also shows that shadow fading makes signifi